What you need to know
- 36 states require some form of identification beyond a signature match for voting
- Analysis by Everything Policy identifies the state-by-state as well as partisan variation in voter ID laws
- We also summarize research on which groups in America are more likely to not have the right identification to cast a vote.
Voter ID laws are described by their supporters as a way to ensure that only eligible citizens cast votes. Opponents see these laws as a barrier to voting. This brief answers several questions, including: Which states have ID laws? What kinds of people lack a photo ID? Do states without voter ID laws have higher documented rates of voter fraud?
How do state voter ID laws differ?
As of October 2024, 36 states have some form of voter ID laws. The color gradation in the map below shows the states with the strictest laws in dark gray (photo or non-photo) and those with the most lenient laws in light gray (no ID required.) Those in the middle have procedures such as affidavits that allow citizens to vote without an ID (mid gray.)
The primary argument for voter identification laws is that they help protect against voter fraud, such as individuals voting in precincts where they no longer reside, voting multiple times in one election, or voting on behalf of another individual, deceased or otherwise.
There is a significant partisan asymmetry in voter ID laws. As shown below, Republican-controlled states are more likely to have stronger voter ID laws compared to Democrat-controlled and swing states.
Do states without voter ID laws have higher documented voter fraud in U.S. elections?
Documented legal cases of voter fraud are very rare. For example, according to the Heritage Foundation Voter Fraud tracker, in the 2020 presidential election there were approximately 155 million votes cast and 17 criminal convictions, for a fraud rate of about one case per ten million votes.
Given the low rate of documented voter fraud, it is virtually impossible to determine the actual impact of voter ID laws on fraud rates because there hasn’t been enough data collected. The cases of voter fraud identified by the Heritage Foundation are scattered across the country, in both states with no ID laws and states with the strictest ID laws.
Even if voter ID laws do not reduce voter fraud, it is possible that their widespread implementation might increase public confidence in election integrity. Here are some activities in American daily life that typically require a valid photo ID: buying alcohol or tobacco; opening a bank account; applying for food stamps, welfare, Medicaid and Social Security; renting and buying a house or car; flying on an airplane; getting married; purchasing a firearm; adopting a pet; applying for a hunting or fishing license; renting a hotel room; securing mobile phone service through a major carrier; visiting a casino; donating blood; and applying for unemployment benefits.
What are the arguments against voter ID laws?
The principal argument against voter ID laws is that they place a disproportionate burden on historically disadvantaged groups, such as people with low incomes, the young, or minorities, as these citizens are less likely to have valid photo ID. Although studies on the percentage of eligible voters who have reasonable access to acquiring a valid photo ID is limited, a 2023 study by political scientists Michael Hamner and Samuel Novel used Census and survey data to calculate the percentage of non-ID holders in different demographic groups, as shown in the figure below:
The data shows that virtually all whites and people over 30 have a photo ID. However, about 6 percent of Blacks and Hispanics do not have a photo ID. The rate is significantly higher for young people (about 15%) and people with low incomes (over 30%.)
Do voter ID laws depress turnout?
The results are mixed. Some studies have found that ID laws have little impact on voter turnout, even among minority voters. Other studies find that in states with strict voter identification laws, Blacks, Latinos, and Democrats were less likely to vote than White and Republican voters. In addition to people of color, Voter ID laws tend to have a greater impact on marginalized populations, including Native American communities, low-income, and, in certain circumstances, the elderly and rural voters, regardless of race or ethnicity.
The Take-Away
- About two-thirds of American states have some form of voter ID laws, with Republican-controlled states more likely to have such laws compared to swing states or Democrat-controlled states.
- There is little evidence that voter ID laws reduce voter fraud as there aren’t many court cases regarding the subject, and such cases usually involve only a few individuals. However, voter ID laws may increase citizens’ confidence in electoral integrity.
- At present, voter ID laws may increase barriers to voting for people of low income, young Americans, and Blacks and Hispanics. However, it is unclear whether voter ID laws reduce turnout from these groups or in general.
Further reading
- Highton, B. (2017). Voter identification laws and turnout in the United States. Annual Review of Political Science, 20, 149-167. http://tinyurl.com/58pzzck6, accessed 12/13/23.
- Barreto, Matt A., Stephen Nuño, Gabriel R. Sanchez, and Hannah L. Walker. (2018). “The Racial Implications of Voter Identification Laws in America.” American Politics Research 47 (2): 238–49. http://tinyurl.com/59dvn2dm, accessed 12/14/23.
- Mycoff, J. D., Wagner, M. W., & Wilson, D. C. (2009). The empirical effects of voter-ID laws: Present or absent?. PS: Political Science & Politics, 42(1), 121-126. http://tinyurl.com/yck349b3, accessed 12/14/23.
Sources
What are voter ID laws?
National Conference of State Legislatures. (2024). Voter ID Laws. https://tinyurl.com/nhkw4ann (Chart Data).
What are the arguments in favor of Voter ID laws?
Harden, J. J., & Campos, A. (2023). Who benefits from voter identification laws? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 120(7). http://tinyurl.com/mr23cnt2, accessed 12/13/23.
The Heritage Foundation. (2024). Voter fraud map: Election fraud database. The Heritage Foundation. https://tinyurl.com/2s46zjmt
Kamarck, E., Galston, W. A., Elaine Kamarck, W. A. G., Munis, K., Gabriel R. Sanchez, A. A. P., & Pipa, A. F. (2024). Widespread election fraud claims by Republicans don’t match the evidence. Brookings. https://tinyurl.com/2f3c5dvt
What are the arguments against Voter ID laws?
Hamner, M., and S. Novel. (2023) Who Lacked Photo ID in 2020?: An Exploration of the American National Election Studies, https://tinyurl.com/2kbenx4k, accessed 10/28/24.
Filer, J. E., Kenny, L. W., & Morton, R. B. (1991). Voting Laws, Educational Policies, and Minority Turnout. Journal of Law and Economics 34(2), 371–93. https://www.jstor.org/stable/725447, accessed 12/14/23 (chart data).
The Heritage Foundation. Election Fraud Cases. (2023). http://tinyurl.com/34fhfu7w, accessed 11/28/23.
Hajnal, Z., Lajevardi, N., & Nielson, L. (2017). Voter identification laws and the suppression of minority votes. The Journal of Politics, 79(2), 363-379. http://tinyurl.com/3wt2mk9h, accessed 12/14/23.
Highton, B. (2017). Voter identification laws and turnout in the United States. Annual Review of Political Science, 20, 149-167. http://tinyurl.com/vt5yvhkc, accessed 12/14/23.
Mycoff, J. D., Wagner, M. W., & Wilson, D. C. (2009). The empirical effects of voter-ID laws: Present or absent?. PS: Political Science & Politics, 42(1), 121-126. http://tinyurl.com/yck349b3, accessed 12/14/23.
Rocha, R. R., & Matsubayashi, T. (2014). The Politics of Race and Voter ID Laws in the States: The Return of Jim Crow? Political Research Quarterly, 67(3), 666–679. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24371900, accessed 12/14/23.
Contributors
Ralph Fernando (Intern) is an Economics and Mathematics student at Indiana University Bloomington. He will graduate in May 2025 and plans to attend graduate school to pursue a Ph.D. in Economics.
Dr. Carolyn Holmes (Content Lead) is an Assistant Professor of Political Science at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. She received her PhD from Indiana University in 2015. Her research concerns nationalism and democratization, and has been funded by the Institute for International Education, the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, and the American Political Science Association.
Dr. William Bianco (Research Director) received his PhD in Political Science from the University of Rochester. He is Professor of Political Science and Director of the Indiana Political Analytics Workshop at Indiana University. His current research is on representation, political identities, and the politics of scientific research.
